Adams State Academic Research

This collection contains theses written by the graduates in Adams State University’s Masters programs.

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The Effect of Ankle Kinesio Tape on Single Leg Balance and Athletes' Perceptions of its Effectiveness
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if an application of kinesic tape (KT) to the ankle is an effective measure in aiding balance using a dynamic measure of balance, the star excursion balance test (SEBT). A structured open-ended questionnaire was also administered to detem1ine if participants believed the KT actually worked or if it is merely a placebo effect. Methods: Twenty NCAA Division II collegiate men's and women's soccer, baseball, and women· s lacrosse players (1 0 males and 1 0 females) volunteered to be in this study. The mean age of participants was 21.0 ± 1.26 years, height of62.8 ± 4.5 inches, weight of 158.9 ± 29.03 lbs. and mean leg length of 92.35 ± 7.59 cm. All participants completed the SEBT under three conditions in random order: the kinesic tape (KT), placebo tape (PT), and the control (no tape, NT). All subjects had 6 practice trials in each of the 8 directions of SEBT for the dominant leg to become familiar with the task. The dominant foot was the leg in which the tape was applied and the leg used during the SEBT to balance on. The three reaches in each direction of SEBT were recorded, and the average of the three calculated and used for analysis. Once done with all three conditions for the SEBT test, each participant filled out a structured, open-ended questionnaire about their perceived perceptions of the tape conditions. Results: The results from this study showed no significant (p > 0.05) differences among the three tape conditions during the SEBT overall; although two SEBT directions (Anterior Lateral and Lateral) showed significant (p < 0.05) differences in reach differences. The Anterior Lateral directions showed significant (p < 0.05) differences in reach distance between the KT and PT conditions. The KT condition had significantly further reach distances than the PT. although the KT didn’t have any significant differences with the no tape condition (p > 0.05). The Lateral SEBT directions showed significant (p < 0.05) differences in reach distance for NT and PT conditions. The NT condition had significantly (p < 0.05) further reach distances than the PT, although NT didn’t have any significant (p > 0.05) differences with the KT condition. Through the questionnaire, results showed that the majority of participants ranked NT as the most effective in aiding balance (45%), followed by KT (35%), and PT (20%). Conclusion: This study would suggest that although KT had no effect on aiding balance during the SEBT, one-third of the participants perceived KT as the most effective in aiding balance during the SEBT, due to improved perceptions of stability, confidence and reassurance with the KT in place. Overall, none of the tape conditions for this study showed significant differences during the SEBT; and 45% of the participants perceived NT as the most effective when performing the SEBT dynan1ic balance test.
The Effect of Kinesio Tape on Single Leg Balance
Tape is commonly used as a performance aide in the athletic population. Kinesio tape has gained significant popularity in recent years, but there is a lack of scientific evidence on its efficacy. The current study aimed to determine if an application of kinesio tape, placebo tape, or no tape were effective measures in aiding single leg balance. Thirty (15 males and 15 females) division II athletes (age: 21±2 years; height: 69±7 inches; weight 191.5±71.5 pounds) were recruited to participate in this study. The volunteers participated in men's soccer, women's soccer, men's lacrosse, women's lacrosse, football, women's track and field, men's track and field, women· s basketball, men· s basketball softball, baseball and women· s volleyball. Participants were randomly assigned to a starting group (control, kinesio tape, or placebo tape) and all participants completed all three conditions. Kinesio tape, placebo tape, or no tape was applied to the participants. Single leg Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) testing was performed by the participants on their dominant leg in each testing condition. Total BESS scores were collected by combining the total amount of errors from the firm and foam single leg conditions. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run on the data. There were significant differences (p<0.05) between the control group (M = 3.4, SD = 1.92) and both the kinesio tape (M = 6.43, SD = 2.05) and placebo groups (M = 6.47. SD = 2.18), but no significant differences between the kinesio tape and placebo tape groups. The results of the current study suggest that kinesio tape and placebo tape, on division II athletes, are not effective measures in aiding single leg balance. In fact, they appear to worsen balance compared to the no tape condition.
The Effects of Caffeine Supplementation in Division II Track Athletes During Multiple-Bout Mid-Distance Running Performance
Caffeine supplementation has been shown to increase time to exhaustion in aerobic performance, but has not been examined in a field setting for multiple-bout mid-distance running performance. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if caffeine supplementation had a positive effect on the overall performance in Division II male and female collegiate mid-distance athletes. Overall performance was ultimately determined by the participants' multiple-bout one-mile and 400-meter times on a 200-meter indoor track field setting. The secondary purpose of this study was to analyze heart rate and blood lactate levels during recovery after both bouts. Methods: Twelve Division II middle-distance track athletes (6 males/6 females) were assigned to a double-blind, equal randomization, crossover design study. Participants consumed 6 mg·kg-1 of NoDoz caffeine or placebo (sugar pill) one hour prior to a maximal effort one-mile bout followed by a structured recovery period; then they performed a maximal effort 400-meter bout. A total of two trials were performed, separated by one week. Each participant underwent each treatment. Results: Male participants' immediate post 400-meter HR placebo (PCB) vs. male immediate post 400-meter HR caffeine (CAF) was found to be significant (p <.OS). For the females, statistical significance was found in the S-minute pre-mile BL PCB vs. S-minute pre-mile BL CAF (p < .OS). There was no statistical significance for caffeine increasing overall running performance (time) in either the mile or 400-meter bouts for either genders. Conclusions: Though caffeine was not found to be statistically significant to benefit mile or 400-meter times, practically caffeine may be a viable method for improving performance based on observably faster mile and 400-meter times. However, more research is needed.
The Effects of Multiple Concussions on Recovery Time in NCAA Division II Collegiate Athletes
The primary purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between a history of concussions and recovery time in NCAA Division II male and female collegiate athletes. The secondary purpose was to determine if there is a difference in gender when it comes to concussion recovery. This was a cohort study conducted over a period of 16 weeks. The participants in this study were male (N=3) and female (N=4) student-athletes, ages 18-21 years, who had been evaluated by a Certified Athletic Trainer and deemed as having sustained a concussion. The independent variables for this study were the concussed athletes, concussion hist01ies of student-athletes and their gender. The dependent variables for this study were scores on the Standard Assessment of Concussion (SAC) test, and Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) test, and the Graded Symptom Scale Checklist from baseline, post-injury, and return-to-baseline testing, and recovery time. When a student-athlete was diagnosed with a concussion, the team's assigned ATC reported the concussion to the researcher. The researcher recorded the student-athlete's history of concussions and then monitored how long their recovery took. Full clearance would be granted when the athlete retums to within two points of their baseline levels of the SAC and BESS tests, and reports absolutely no symptoms on the Graded Symptoms Scale Checklist, reports no use of pain medication, completes the final day of the retum to play (RTP) protocol, and reports no concussion symptoms 24 hours after the last day of the RTP protocol. The findings show that there was no significant difference (p<0.05) between history of concussion and recovery time. The findings also show that there was no statistical difference between gender and recovery time (p<0.05). The results from the Mann-Whitney U test testing concussion history and time out of sport showed that there was no significant difference between recovery time and history of concussion (p=0.571). The results from the second Mann-Whitney U test showed that there was no significant difference between gender and recovery time (p=0.057). Female participants averaged 21.33 ±9.29 days missed from sport with a range of 15-32 days, and the male participants averaged I 0.25 ±2.63 days missed from sport with a range of 8-14 days. The average number of days missed from sport for those with a concussion history was 12.60 ±3.91 days, with a range of 8-17 days. The average of days missed for those without a concussion history was 21.00 ± 15.56 days, with a range of 10-32 days missed. Though there was no significance between gender and recovery time, the outcome approaches significance, showing that women were taking longer to recover than men. This study can be used to add to the ever growing collection of concussion data. Athletic trainers and other health care professionals can use the data collected in this study to better treat concussions in their athletes. Having the knowledge of average recovery time (7-1 0 days) from concussions, dependent on gender and concussion history, will allow medical professionals to better educate athletes, coaches and parents about what they can expect.
The Effects of Varying Postactivation Potentiation Intensities on Vertical Jump Performance
The purpose of the study was to determine whether a submaximal loading protocol or a super maximal loading protocol was the most effective postactivation potentiation method for improving a vertical jump test with Division II football and volleyball players. If there was a significant increase in vertical jump performance following the super maximal loading or submaximal loading protocol, it may be assumed that one of the protocols causes a greater postactivation potentiation effect. The researcher hypothesized that the heavy spinal load created by the rack squat may produce a higher anaerobic output result through the vertical jump in comparison to the submaximal spinal load from the jump squat. The participants underwent a four week protocol including maximal back squat testing, baseline vertical jump testing, vertical jump testing after the submaximal loading protocol, and vertical jump testing after the super maximal loading protocol. Each intervention was completed on a separate week to ensure adequate rest from the movements. The dependent variables of the study were the vertical jump performances and the EMG peak amplitude measured after each intervention. The results were analyzed using a mixed ANOV A design since the research included two independent variables, which were the sport played and the specific intervention. All data was run through SPSS (Version 22, 2013) and the significance level was set at p < 0.05 for all variables. The football players observed an insignificant increase in average vertical jump performance following the jump squat intervention (27.71 inches) and rack squat intervention (27.62 inches) in comparison to the pretest performance (27.31 inches). The volleyball players observed an insignificant decrease in average vertical jump performance following the rack squat intervention (18.38 inches) and the jump squat intervention (18.45 inches) in comparison to the pretest performance (19.56 inches). There was not a significant difference within groups between the vertical jump heights after the rack squat and jump squat interventions (p > .05). The results show that there was a significant effect of the sport played in relation to the increase or decrease in vertical jump performance during the rack squat and jump squat interventions (p < 0.05). The results from the study indicate no significant difference between the super maximal and submaximal loading protocols for postactivation potentiation prior to vertical jump testing in these specific athletic groups. Therefore, the hypothesis posed by the researcher was rejected.
The Effects of a Sport-Specific Upper Body Resistance Tube Training Program on Overhead Throwing Velocity and Glenohumeral Joint Range of Motion in NCAA Division II Softball Players
Sport-specific resistance tube exercises that target the muscles of the glenohumeral joint involved in overhead throwing have been effective in improving overhead throwing velocity and glenohumeral joint range of motion (ROM). However, past research has been solely based on male baseball players, a combination of male baseball players and female softball players, or female athletes of other overhead throwing sports; few studies have conducted research only on female softball players. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of the addition of a sport-specific resistance tube training program to a regular resistance training program on NCAA Division II women softball players' overhead throwing performance, upper body strength, and glenohumeral ROM. Methods: Twenty-eight NCAA Division II softball players, with at least five years of experience, volunteered for the study (age: 19.75 ± 1.53 years; height: 165.42 ± 5.62 em; weight: 71.57 ± 14.00 kg). Participants were randomly divided equally into two groups: an experimental group that performed sport-specific exercises with the resistance tubes, and a control group that performed non-sport-specific exercises with resistance tubes. The training intervention lasted eight weeks, during the softball season; testing days were implemented a week before and a week after the training intervention, making the entire study ten weeks long. Pre- and post-training tests included anthropometric measurements, one repetition maximum (1RM) Chop Test, overhead throwing velocity, and glenohumeral joint ROM. Body composition testing was measured using a seven-site skinfold technique. Overhead throwing velocity was measured using a SR-3300 Speed Radar Gun; peak and average throwing velocity of five throws was recorded. The 1RM Chop Test was measured using a standard I RM protocol as outlined in Baechle and Earle (20 16) and Palmer and Uhl (20 11 ). Glenohumeral joint ROM was measured using a goniometer (model G-300), and was measured in the directions of internal and external rotation of the dominant arm. Results: A two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed that peak and average throwing velocity, and 1RM Chop Test increased significantly (p < 0.05) from pre- to post-test regardless of the intervention used. Peak throwing velocity for the experimental group and control group showed an increase of2.00 mph and 0.92 mph, respectively; average throwing velocity showed an increase of 1.65 mph and 0.91 mph, respectively. The 1RM Chop test showed increases of 6.35 kg and 4.87 kg for the experimental group and control group, respectively. An ANOVA revealed the mean increases for throwing velocity and 1 RM Chop Test were not significantly different (p > 0.05) between the experimental group and control group. However, anthropomorphic measurements did show significant differences (p < 0.05) between groups, specifically weight, body fat percentage, and fat mass. The experimental group showed average decreases of 0.66 kg, 0.90%, and 0.75 kg in weight, body fat percentage, and fat mass, respectively; the control group showed an increase of 0.87 kg, 0.31%, and 0.30 kg in weight, body fat percentage, and fat mass, respectively. Conclusion: A sport-specific resistance tube training program does not improve throwing velocity, upper body strength, or glenohumeral joint ROM significantly more than a non-sport specific resistance tube training program. Future studies should take into consideration what season the participants are currently in (i.e. off-season, pre-season, or in-season). This may result in different outcomes, and help maintain a schedule and reduce the risk of missed training sessions and the need for make-up days. Practical Application: Although no statistically significant difference was observed when comparing the experimental group to the control group in throwing velocity, there was significant difference when combined pre- and post-test values were analyzed. The experimental group experienced more of an increase in peak and average throwing velocity than the control group (1.08 mph and 0. 74 mph, respectively). The results showed a small effect size of d =0.25 and d =0.21 for peak and average throwing velocity, respectively. A larger population or longer training intervention may have resulted in a larger effect size, and thus, a statistical significance between groups. Although it is a small difference, an increase at the collegiate level is seen as meaningful when competing; this may convince coaches to include sport-specific resistance tube exercises that target the muscles of the glenohumeral joint in their athletes' regular resistance training program.
The Gold King Mine: Past, Present, and Future
The Gold King Mine, a previously insignificant site, came to the nation's attention on August 5, 2015, when toxic material from the mine poured into a tributary of Colorado's Animas River, severely damaging the ecosystem for miles downstream. Although the EPA has been blamed and has accepted responsibility for the spill it is not entirely at fault. The complete list of causes for this environmental disaster extends back to the Nineteenth century and continues into the Twenty-First Century. The General Mining Law of 1872 was written for the purpose of making it easier for Americans to populate the West and to stimulate the economy. This law did exactly that. Many, like Olaf Nelson, the founder of the Gold King Mine, came to the West with a get-rich-quick mentality. Some were able to strike it rich, others were employed by those lucky few, and the nation was provided with a steady source of natural resources. All of this was done with little to no regulation for over one hundred years, and for that reason, the nation is now paying for the success of the mining industry. The precedence of hardrock mining claims and weak regulations for the industry were established by the General Mining Law of 1872 and these faults have yet to be corrected. Human avarice, along with the vicissitudes of the natural and economic climates, compounded the unforeseen consequences of the mining law. The maze of subsequent environmental legislation has not provided an adequate remedy. In order to prevent future disasters and pollution, the laws and standards for this industry will need to change. Bills to replace the General Mining Law of 1872 have been proposed by Congress in the wake of the Gold King Mine Spill. Although the outcome is still unknown, it might finally be time to impose meaningful regulation on the hardrock mining industry.
The Making Of A Massacre: The Escalation Of Filibustering In Sonora, 1850-1857
Between 1850 and 1857 six separate filibustering attempts left from San Francisco in hopes of conquest in Sonora, Mexico. Three U.S. citizens and three Frenchmen, all being drawn to California during the gold rush, failed to have their fortunes materialize. These adventurers desired more than California could offer and each organized groups to travel south in search of land, fame, and fortune in the northern Mexican state. Each group had its own motivations and designs on Sonora. Some simply wanted to colonize, others to conquer, but each failed in their attempts. In a time when all of Mexico, including Sonora, was suffering from political division and turmoil, these foreigners believed they could take advantage of the situation. In each instance, the Mexicans were able to maintain their soil and deal with the invaders. As each new filibusterer arrived, the Mexicans increased the aggression of their response, leading to military engagements in which men on both sides gave their lives. The battles would not be the end of the violence. After the fifth filibustering attempt, Mexico executed its leader, Raousset-Boulbon. Ongoing filibustering prodded Mexico into increasing levels of violence to quell these invasions. Filibustering concluded in 1857, when the Mexicans battled with the Crabb Expedition, forcing its surrender. Finally, Henry A. Crabb and all his men, save one, were executed on the orders of the local military commander to send a message to all future filibusters that they would be dealt with similarly.
The Republican Party: A Coalition of the Four Dominant Types of Conservative Groups Identified in the Republican Party. How They Evolved and Influenced the Republican Party and Current Politics.
For the sake of simplicity, one may apportion the Republican Party core into four groups; business and economic conservatives; neoconservatives; social and religious conservatives; and Tea Party-libertarian adherents. Although there are certain beliefs and traits most Republicans share, one must be careful about grouping all conservatives together as a monolithic group and this four part coding helps highlight both commonalities and distinctions.
The Soul of Magic City: Religion in Roanoke, Virginia, 1882-1914
Historians of American religion have recently written about the existence of religious diversity, which was especially evident in the American South. Although many have tended to target their research on social issues and politics, denominational distinctiveness in theological beliefs and practices ought to be seen as yet another form of diversity. Roanoke, Virginia may not be as well known as other Southern cities, such as Richmond or Atlanta, but being birthed as a "boomtown" during the Progressive Era, it offers itself as a unique example of how the religious institutions helped shape the early growth of the city, and cyclically, how the city shaped the religious institutions as well. Protestants, Catholics, and even religious minorities had come to the "Magic City," as Roanoke was nicknamed. Many brought their religious views and denominational preferences with them, and others were eventually converted to one of the numerous religious institutions. Within this localized context, religious diversity is clearly demonstrated among the different denominations, but discrepancies and complementarities can also be seen in relation to the broader historiographical context of Southern religious history and of denominational history. Examining Roanoke's history through the lens of each denomination reveals many of the religious complexities that existed in the New South. And despite the wide variation of religious belief, most of Roanoke's residents understood religion as being an indispensable component to the social and spiritual wellbeing of their young city.
The Use of Hydration Status to Monitor How Division II Collegiate Wrestlers Achieve Lowest Allowable Weight Class
This study evaluated hydration status, lean mass and fat mass loss, and any participation in rapid weight loss over the course of one competitive DII collegiate wrestling season. A total of 10 male participants aged 19-23 years volunteered for this study. All participants competed in varsity matches for a Division II collegiate wrestling team. The ten participants all completed the weight class certifications following the NCAA protocol on 10/22114. The protocol requires wrestlers to be hydrated with a urine specific gravity of 1.020 sp. gr. or less prior to being officially weighed or measuring body composition. Nine of those wrestlers competed in a wrestling dual at the second data collection on 1/9115, while only five competed in the wrestling dual on the final collection date on 2/13115. On average, the wrestlers (n=9) lost 3.89 ± 2.34 pounds off at mass and 3.11 ± 3.31 pounds of lean mass over the 12-week period from the initial certification date to the 2nd test date. Additionally, on average the wrestlers (n=5) lost 3.69 ± 2.80 pounds of fat mass and 2.30 ± 5.25 pounds of lean mass over the 17-week period from initial certification to the final test date. A related-samples McNemer test was conducted to determine significance from the expected hydration status and the actual hydration status of the wrestlers. Eighty-nine percent of wrestlers (n=9) had a urine specific gravity above 1.020 sp. gr. at the time of official weigh-ins for the 2nd hydration test date; 100% of the wrestlers (n=5) had a urine specific gravity above 1.020 sp. gr. at the time of the final test date. A urine specific gravity above 1.020 sp.gr. indicates the wrestler is in a dehydrated state according to NCAA standards. No significant findings were reported for weekly weight loss as the wrestlers used official weigh-ins when recording weight. The wrestlers did not record a weight 24-48 hours prior to the official weigh-ins, so rapid weight loss could not be observed. The findings of this study suggest that even though individual weight loss over the course of a wrestling season is better controlled, wrestlers are dehydrated just an hour prior to competition, and also are losing a combination of fat mass and lean mass. A wrestler’s performance may be negatively affected as a result of dehydration and lean mass loss. Additionally, dehydration may increase the wrestler's chance of experiencing exertional heat illnesses.
The Washington Territory During the Civil War: Prosperity in Exchange for Loyalty
The stories of the Pig War and the region's Indian Wars have been well documented by authors such as Mike Vouri and Robert Utley, respectively. The telegraph and railroad are components of the larger, territorial and state histories, and are commonly told as such. The questions surrounding loyalty in the territory are woven in through various works, with no singular volume in existence that explores this theme in depth. The story of the American frontier West, that of the Civil War, and certainly the geopolitical concerns of the Washington Territory are essential to understanding a more complete picture of the nation's history.

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