STRATA

: Faith; Poem by Isabel Viana from Fall 2008 - Winter 2009 issue of Images.

: Fat Tire; Photograph by Austin Breunig from Fall 2012 - Winter 2013 issue of Images.

: Federalism and Direct Democracy: Why States Dissent Against Federal Law; " This research examines the role of direct democracy in a federal system of government and why states choose to defy federal law. Ever since the adoption of the Constitution, America has been dealing with the issue of delineating which powers are reserved to the national government and which powers are reserved to the states. Scholars of federalism have long theorized about the nature of the relationship between the states and the federal government. While some scholars would describe the relationship of power as cooperative, this presentation continues the tradition of uncooperative federalism and establishes the theory of dissenters' federalism. This theory depicts states as subservient to the federal government and are implementers of policy. Individual states can choose to follow federal policies or dissent against them. By creating state laws that do not conform to federal policy, states can effectively dissent against their national government. The main focus of the research is, how direct democracy within a state affects the frequency of its dissent. As previous scholars have shown, state dissent is tied directly to partisanship. Democratic states are likely to dissent against laws made during a Republican Congress and vice versa. For the purposes of this study, six Democratic states were selected for analysis during a period of a Republican controlled congress. By understanding the nature of direct democracy in a federal system, it is possible for ordinary citizens to challenge federal laws through a state's institutions. "

: Feminists in the Bloggernaccle: How the Internet is Changing the Way Mormon Women Talk About Themselves; In this autoethnographic study I will explore the diverse views about female priesthood ordination within the LDS community. I also will discuss the role of the internet in initiating changes within the church. Currently in the Mormon community there has been a great deal of discussion about the role of women in the church, particularly regarding priesthood ordination and access to leadership positions. In this research I surveyed 150 church members and asked them a variety of questions about their views concerning the role of women, the processes of change within the church, and their participation in online discussions of this topic. I compounded my interviews with discourse analysis of several Mormon blogs and library research. I found that changes within the church and opinions about female ordination are influenced by the online discussions that take place on blogs. The changes evident in Mormon culture regarding women's roles are reflective of the changing position of women within a broader social context.

: Ferocious Hatred or Reverent Coexistence: Disparate Human Ontologies of the Wolf; For millennia humans have coexisted with wolves, often hunting the same prey, and inhabiting shared territories. Myriad cultures have unique ontologies of the wolf, and many of them share a reverence and respect for the wolf as a sacred animal or totem. In sharp contrast, the Euro-American colonists and settlers generally displayed a pernicious hatred of the wolf leading to the mass extermination of wolves and ultimately their near-extinction from the United States by the early twentieth century. My research examines the roots of why the Euro-American's espoused such a pathological hatred of the wolf, juxtaposing it to the many cultures who revere the wolf. While much of the hatred and misconceptions towards wolves continues to persist in this country, there are many people now shifting to more of an appreciation and respect for the wolf. To trace this shift, I document how some scientists, government agencies, organizations, groups and individuals are beginning to recognize the fundamental significance and values of the wolf and are making steps to protect and return wolves to US wilderness areas. I review the current research that explains how reestablishing wolf populations can cause significant positive effects throughout the food chain of an ecosystem, through a process known as trophic cascades. I also provide an overview of recent legislative changes in regards to the protection/reintroduction of wolves and look at the grassroots work being done to protection of the wolves. My research is informed by a 3 month internship at Wolfwood Refuge, working with wolves and wolf/dog mixes that have been illegally bred and/or mistreated resulting in them being brought to the refuge for a better life and to educate the public about wolves. The goal of my research is to reflect on ways we can continue to transform our perspectives of wolves and relearn to coexist with them for the benefit of the ecology of the earth.

: Field Evidence for Cyclic Subsurface Eruptions During Diatreme Emplacement, Cathedral Cliff, Navajo Volcanic Field; Diatremes in the Navajo volcanic field were emplaced in steep pipes or dome-shaped "blind" eruptions. Aprons of bedded and stratified deposits envelope some of these complexes, providing insight into their eruptive histories. The pyroclastic apron at Cathedral Cliff diatreme preserves deposits and bedforms indicative of high energy emplacement of gas-charged magma. Field studies document multiple (18+) eruptive cycles from distinct, episodic discharges of gas and pyroclastic material at depths of 1500 to 2000 feet. Erupted material in each cycle is 6 to 15 feet thick and contains three main deposit types. Basal deposits in each cycle are unbedded, matrix to clast supported, heterolithic tuff breccia with angular to subrounded fragments of essential, cognate and accidental material up to 30 cm in maximum dimension. This is overlain by thin bedded, crudely-graded tuff breccia with similar types of pebble-sized fragments. Cycles are usually capped by thinly-laminated to thin-bedded ash-rich tuffs that preserve cross stratification, impact structures, and erosional surfaces. Each cycle thus transitioned from highly explosive and chaotic deposition of material to finer ash-rich material dominated by transport bedforms. The tops of most cycles are scoured and truncated by basal deposits of the next cycle. Beds in the pyroclastic apron dip steeply toward the center of the diatreme. Cross lamination, scour surfaces, "bomb" sags, and graded bedding indicate that the oldest deposits are on the outer margin of the pyroclastic apron with successive deposits inward. The results of this investigation provide evidence for multiple and discrete subterranean eruptions during diatreme formation. This is consistent with models that involve the rise and expansion of gas-rich "bubbles" that ultimately exceed lithostatic pressure and erupt. These "bubbles" expand and release gas upwards, and then collapse in subsurface chambers, depositing subvertical masses of pyroclastic material. Our results, however, indicate a progression in each cycle from clast-laden material to low-density gas-rich and clast-poor material. The data lends support for multiple eruptive pulses during diatreme formation related to magmatic-gas decompression, as opposed to periodic interaction with groundwater reservoirs.

: Fighting in the Forests: A Plan for Conflict Resolution in the Backcountry; Adventure Education is an emerging pedagogy that encompasses a holistic approach to teaching and learning in the backcountry. Adventure educators, and their professional counterparts, are often required to demonstrate a diversified skill set that includes both technical skills (e.g. rock climbing, paddling or camping skills) and interpersonal skills (e.g. ability to listen, connect with the participants and conflict resolution skills). Specifically, I will be taking a look at how professionals and students in Adventure Education are being trained to handle conflict resolution situations in a backcountry setting.

: Fire Dancers; Photograph from Fall 2010 - Winter 2011 issue of Images.

: Fire History of the Turkey Spring Watershed: Fort Apache Reservation, AZ; The Turkey Spring (TS) watershed (approximately 0.27 mi2) is located in east-central Arizona south of the Mogollon Rim escarpment on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation. The 2002 Rodeo-Chediski wildfire burned over 280,000 acres of woodlands on the reservation, disrupted hydrologic systems, and triggered increased runoff and stream channel incision in the watershed. The channel incision exposed well-preserved, soil horizons, paleo-debris flow deposits and multiple charcoal layers. The purpose of this study was to: (1) measure a stratigraphic section within the TS watershed; (2) determine radiometric age dates from charcoal exposed in the channel cut; and, (3) establish a fire history for the watershed. Charcoal samples were collected from a 2.4 meter section (elevation 1855 meters, 572555E, 3780785.5N, Z12N) in the TS watershed. The channel cut exposed: (1) cobble-rich sandy loam to sandy loam soils; (2) four spatially distinct charcoal layers; and, (3) angular, poorly-sorted, gravels interpreted as debris flow, flood deposits. The soil and alluvial deposits overlie the Corduroy member of the Supai Formation. The upper section of the Corduroy member consists of fine-grained sandstone and siltstone; the lower section is composed of siltstone, gypsum, and limestone. Three of the four charcoal layers are interbedded with or occur stratigraphically below, angular to sub-rounded gravel to boulder-sized clasts. Organic material and excess soil were removed from the charcoal samples in the Fort Lewis College research lab, and three prepared samples were sent to the University of Arizona, Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) lab for 14C analysis. 14C dates from the AMS lab were converted to calendar age dates using the OxCal software, which yielded calendar age dates of: BC 6,235 ± 140; AD 623 ± 48; and AD 722 ± 56. Because the charcoal samples were either within or below the coarse alluvial material, we suggest that wildfires likely induced the debris flow events. Two of the three 14C age dates (AD 623 ± 48 and AD 722 ± 56) correlate well with known drought conditions in the southwestern USA (Frechette, 2009). The oldest 14C sample (BC 6,235 ± 140) is associated with a major debris flow event, and correlates with a transition between high and low effective moisture in southern Arizona, documented by Walters and Haynes (2001).

: Flow Visualization and Data Acquisition of Transparent Rocket Exhaust; Our group developed a system that is capable of visualizing transparent rocket exhaust during a static rocket test. The system allows for the measurement of geometries in rocket exhaust plumes while recording pressure and temperature. The complete system consists of a flow visualization sub-system and the data acquisition and control (DACS) sub-system. For the flow visualization system we evaluated several options with the final choice being a double-pass single mirror schlieren apparatus. For the DACS we developed hardware and software that is capable of controlling the test while logging the desired data. The group constructed and tested a full scale prototype in order to validate the design choices. To assess the performance of the systems, tests were conducted to evaluate the viewing area, resolution of the images, ease of alignment, and external interferences. The DACS team developed software to control the mechanical and electrical components of the system while logging pressure and temperature data. The exhaust plumes and corresponding effects of multiple nozzle types can be evaluated using our schlerien double-pass system. Our system is capable of capturing images of sufficient resolution and size while logging pressure and temperature data.

: Food Security in La Plata County, Colorado; Local food security in La Plata County, Colorado is the subject of this research. In general, high levels of food security correlate with high levels of production, transportation, and education. Simply because a nation grows mass quantities of food in a single isolated area does not mean that the entire country is food secure. Every region possesses a unique definition of what food security means to the local population. For La Plata County, the general public defines good food security as a situation where all people have access to safe, healthy, affordable, local food. Many other factors contributing to varying definitions and meanings of food security are discussed throughout the paper. History and tactics of American agriculture (organic and industrial) are also discussed. Although local growers are able to supply seasonal produce to those who wish to pay for it, the overall trend proves that the supply is very limited (approximately 2.5% of food consumed in the county is locally grown). The majority of La Plata County growers follow organic practice techniques, which produces a final product very high in quality and generally very low in quantity. Industrial agriculturalists currently feed the bulk of the country. However, their products are not produced, stored, or distributed in sustainable or healthy ways. Industrial agriculture relies on cheap inputs (non-renewable resources), which possess huge problems for both the present (environment, politics, economics, etc.) and the future (health, soil, air quality, etc.). By combining quality traits from organic practice agriculture with productive traits from industrial agriculture, higher levels of quality produce can be produced in La Plata County. With the addition of more cultivated acreage and higher efficiency levels being met, local food security levels can begin to improve in La Plata County.

: Food Waste Co-Digestion: The Potential Benefits of Utilizing Existing Infrastructure at Durango Wastewater Treatment Facility; Communities around the U.S. are beginning to see the ill-effects of traditional methods of waste disposal. Landfill sites are filling to the brim with wasted materials that have the potential to be re-used in non-traditional, sustainable practices of disposal. More than 25% of U.S. waste being buried and forgotten about is composed of organic material—material that is not only biodegradable, but material that has the potential to be used as a source of renewable energy. For the City of Durango, CO, harnessing this potential energy for the benefit of its residents is not an improbable idea. Durango Wastewater Treatment Facility (DWTF) is in possession of the primary infrastructure needed for capturing this energy, a technology called an Anaerobic Digester. Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is a process which breaks down organic content such as food waste and sewage sludge in an environment free of oxygen. After complex stages that continuously break apart the organic contents take place, a by-product of biogas and digestate are left-over, both with beneficial attributes. To fully understand this process, I have conducted interviews with the DWTF manager of operations Larry Clinton. Further secondary resources have also been used throughout my research, including case studies of community treatment facilities that already utilize AD for a source of renewable energy. DWTF is currently "energy-independent" as a result of the energy its Anaerobic Digester produces, meaning it relies on no outside resources for energy/electricity to heat and operate the facility. In fact, there is nearly a forty percent over-production of energy necessary to operate the facility on a daily basis. For the City of Durango, I suggest in this thesis that utilization of the existing Anaerobic Digester at DWTF could further maximize the capture of renewable energy from organic waste. Through the integration of additional organic contents (co-digestion) and the installation of a second methane turbine, the community can then make efficient use of locally generated food waste. A final analysis of the collected data will allow for a recommendation of the necessary steps to apply this source of renewable energy to Durango's power grid.

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